{"refrec":{"BRefID":405998,"RR":"<b>Pannier, S.</b> (2025). Habsburg in Havana: Outsider participation in the Spanish Empire - the slaving licence of Romberg & Consors of Ghent, 1780–90. <i>Itinerario-International Journal on the History of European Expansion and Global Interaction Online first</i>: 1-20. <a href=\"https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0165115325000026\" target=\"_blank\">https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0165115325000026</a>","BEntID":403793,"PublicFlag":1,"CheckedFlag":1,"wosflag":1,"vabbflag":0,"RefStringPartII":". <i>Itinerario-International Journal on the History of European Expansion and Global Interaction Online first</i>: 1-20. <a href=\"https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0165115325000026\" target=\"_blank\">https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0165115325000026</a>","DocTypID":8,"DocType":"Journal article","MarineFlag":0,"FreshFlag":0,"BrackishFlag":0,"TerrestrialFlag":0,"Authorstring":"Pannier, S.","OrigTitleTranslFlag":0,"Authorstringtrunc":"Pannier, S.","Englishabstract":"The history of European overseas expansion has traditionally been studied from a national perspective. However, the rise of Atlantic history, global history, and a revitalized maritime history has prompted scholars to question the rigidity of Early Modern borders assumed by these conventional national or imperial frameworks. In parallel, researchers have contested the state-centric viewpoint by advocating for an actor-focused approach to Atlantic System history, emphasizing the role of private merchants and their informal, international networks. These approaches have uncovered the involvement of entrepreneurs belonging to polities without a formal empire in the colonial ventures of other nations. This paper examines one such trans-imperial enterprise: Romberg & Consors, a firm operating from the Austrian Netherlands. During and after the American War of Independence (1775-83), Romberg & Consors leveraged evolving Spanish attitudes toward the slave trade and the establishment of neutral trade to organize slave trade expeditions to Cuba. 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